Olive Olea europeae The olive tree is one of the oldest cultivated by Man, and archaeological evidence would seem to indicate that it could have begun in Egypt and Ethiopia around 5,000 years ago, spreading quite quickly to North Africa, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Greece, Cyprus and Arabia. Crete, whose modern-day population consumes more olive oil per capita than anywhere else in the world, shows evidence of cultivation as far back as 2,500BC. However, wild olives from oleasters were gathered by the Neolithic population some 10,000 years ago. However difficult it may be to date the first cultivation, it most certainly would have been after the establishment of the first permanent settlements as, although the olive is a successful crop for otherwise difficult terrain, it does require time and patience to grow and, more importantly, process, the olive and its oil for use and consumption. The olive became a mainstay in the life of the ancients. Its oil was used to fuel their lamps, to protect their skin, and both the oil and fruit were a central part of their diet. Little wonder then, that it makes an appearance in every ancient sacred text from the region in symbolism always heavily weighted towards that which is fruitful, promising and positive. In Greek mythology, the olive was a present from the goddess Athena. The legend goes that Athena, goddess of wisdom, and Poseidon, God of the sea, argued over the patronage of a settlement called Kekrops on a rocky outcrop in south-eastern Greece. Zeus, tiring of the dispute between the two gods, decreed that allegiance should be granted to whichever of them could bestow a gift that would benefit the inhabitants there the most. Poseidon struck a rock with his trident, producing a salt water spring to demonstrate his power. Athena caused the olive tree to grow from the barren ground. The gods decided in favour of the goddess, the city was renamed Athens and the olive became a symbol of wisdom, peace and fruitfulness in her honour. The olive was a central influence in Greek society: several of the major gods in the Greek pantheon were depicted holding olive branches or leaves; young brides carried or wore olive leaves to ensure a fruitful marriage; lekythoi, vases of perfumed olive oil were either broken over graves or placed in tombs at funeral rites, a custom which is still flowed at some Greek funerals today. Herodicus (5th century BC), who taught Hippocrates, advocated the use of olive oil as a muscular massage for the athletes who competed in the original Olympic Games. Olive leaves were also used to make wreaths for the victors. The trees used for this were grown at the western end of the Temple of Zeus and were ceremonially cut by a beautiful youth wielding a golden sickle. The Romans loved the olive, it was mentioned by Homer and Pompeii, buried in detail-preserving volcanic ash by the eruption of Vesuvius in AD79, has revealed that the oil was in use in every aspect of Roman life, used in sacred lamps and for medical cosmetic and culinary purposes. It would be used as a cleanser and skin conditioner and every citizen, when visiting the public baths, would be accompanied by a slave carrying his scented oil. This would be rubbed into the skin after bathing and scarped off with a strigil, a curved blade of wood. The Ancient Egyptians, too, prized both the olive and the oil. Records from the time of Ptolemy II mention 27 varieties by his time and wall engravings in the Temple of Karnak record how the Pharaoh’s men were anointed with olive oil on feast days. Many superstitions have grown up around the olive. In Italy, it was believed that hanging an olive branch above the door of a house would keep away evil spirits and the Venetians believed that an olive branch attached to a chimney would stave off lightning strikes. By the Middle Ages the olive was so vital to the Italians that cutting down a community’s or family’s olive trees was seen as a more severe punishment than death. Spanish tradition holds the olive at the centre of happy family life. One belief was that hanging an olive branch in the home would ensure a woman’s authority in her house and that eating olives would ensure a husband’s fidelity. This was furthered shored up in some areas with the belief that a poor olive crop would result if a man was unfaithful to his wife. The olive tree is very long lived; it is said that a tree can live up to 1,000-1,500 years still bearing fruit. This has led to the tree being associated with healing and longevity and in Algeria there is one particularly ancient tree which supplicants visit in order to cure whatever ails them. Olive oil virtually flows throughout the pages of The Bible: ‘pure beaten oil of the olive’ was used to light the lamp in the Tabernacle; olive was traded by Solomon; perfumed, it anointed prophets and kings. It was the oil used on the leather shields of the Biblical period and ‘oiling one’s shield’ became a euphemism for declaring war. In spite of the latter, the olive branch was used to symbolise peace and Noah’s dove returned with an olive leaf to the Ark - a sign that the waters were receding - safety. The New Testament records that Jesus retired to the Mount of Olives before his Crucifixion. The area gained its name for the many olive trees that thrived there; perhaps the choice of the Garden of Gethsemane for his contemplation was linked to the olive’s ancient links with wisdom and peace. Interestingly, the name Gethsemane is derived from the Hebrew Gatshamanim, which mean oil press. Because of its long history of symbolism, olive oil has been a favoured oil for ritual and sacred anointing since the very earliest times. The modern Anglican church, for instance, still employ three oils, all using olive as a base: the oil of catechumens, used for baptism, which is basic olive oil; the oil of confirmation and ordination, the Sacred Chrism, a mixture of oil and floral essence; and the oil to anoint the sick, again the same kind of basic olive oil which is used in the kitchen. The oils are blessed on Maundy Thursday by the bishops and distributed amongst the clergy for use during the year. Olives are still gathered in much the same way as they were in ancient times; vase paintings from around 520BC show men knocking the ripe fruit onto sheets laid onto the ground. The olives, too, are probably pretty much the same fruit as back in antiquity. Olive trees are clones, one of Man’s earliest attempts at genetic engineering. The trees are propagated by cutting off and rooting the small knobs which develop on their trunks, producing genetically identical offspring for replanting, so olives from the very oldest trees are very likely to be almost identical in size and taste as those eaten by the ancients. As with most other foods, olive oil established its place firmly in Man’s medicine chest. Even today, many people still swear by a spoonful to relieve constipation and, until its resurgence in popularity in more recent years, the only available source for the oil in many provincial towns was the high street chemist. Warmed olive oil was traditionally used to ease earache and soften hardened earwax and was also used as a massage oil to ease arthritis and rheumatism. Just some of the other ailments which have been treated with olive oil throughout the ages are diabetes, gout, skin infections gall stones, burns, scalds, baldness, smallpox, pleurisy, coughs, yellow fever and even the plague. Cosmetically, olive oil has been used to protect and smooth the skin, especially during and after exposure to the sun and, apparently, Marilyn Monroe, despite having access to some of the most expensive preparations Hollywood fame could provide used in preference to anything else on offer. The oil was also used in agriculture. It was smothered onto fruit trees to deter pests, to protect from the drying effects of the sun and to insulate against winter frosts. In the preparation of textiles, olive oil was used to lubricate both the fingers of the weavers and the fibre being prepared for weaving. In modern times, olive oil is one of the ‘wonder foods’ which have enjoyed a wide-eyed rediscovery. Scientists, puzzled at the longevity and good health records enjoyed by the Mediterranean peoples, in spite of their heavy smoking habits and high cholesterol intake, investigated the diet of the area further. They found that, whilst the overall fats intake is no less than anywhere in the developed world, in the Mediterranean countries most of that fat is in the form of monounsaturated fats and, in particular, olive oil. Studies that followed this realisation found that olive oil has a positive effect on blood cholesterol levels, increasing the level of HDL or ‘good’ cholesterol which has been associated with lower rates of heart disease. This, though, is just one piece of the overall picture as far as the ’Mediterranean Diet’ is concerned. It is thought that the main benefits are enjoyed when taken together with the other good factors in the diet, such as fibre, fish oils and complex carbohydrates. The tomato, adopted so enthusiastically by the people of the region is another important piece too. It contains the powerful antioxidant lycopene, the benefits of which researchers at Ben Gurion University in Israel have found to be enhanced when taken, and especially cooked, in combination with olive oil. Olives contain between 4-6 kcalories each and are a good source of vitamin E, although rarely eaten in quantities in a large enough amount to significantly affect a dietary intake of the vitamin.